Today, we are excited to announce the capability to fine-tune Llama 2 models by Meta using Amazon SageMaker JumpStart. The Llama 2 family of large language models (LLMs) is a collection of pre-trained and fine-tuned generative text models ranging in scale from 7 billion to 70 billion parameters. Fine-tuned LLMs, called Llama-2-chat, are optimized for dialogue use cases. You can easily try out these models and use them with SageMaker JumpStart, which is a machine learning (ML) hub that provides access to algorithms, models, and ML solutions so you can quickly get started with ML. Now you can also fine-tune 7 billion, 13 billion, and 70 billion parameters Llama 2 text generation models on SageMaker JumpStart using the Amazon SageMaker Studio UI with a few clicks or using the SageMaker Python SDK.

Generative AI foundation models have been the focus of most of the ML and artificial intelligence research and use cases for over a year now. These foundation models perform very well with generative tasks, such as text generation, summarization, question answering, image and video generation, and more, because of their large size and also because they are trained on several large datasets and hundreds of tasks. Despite the great generalization capabilities of these models, there are often use cases that have very specific domain data (such as healthcare or financial services), because of which these models may not be able to provide good results for these use cases. This results in a need for further fine-tuning of these generative AI models over the use case-specific and domain-specific data.

In this post, we walk through how to fine-tune Llama 2 pre-trained text generation models via SageMaker JumpStart.

What is Llama 2

Llama 2 is an auto-regressive language model that uses an optimized transformer architecture. Llama 2 is intended for commercial and research use in English. It comes in a range of parameter sizes—7 billion, 13 billion, and 70 billion—as well as pre-trained and fine-tuned variations. According to Meta, the tuned versions use supervised fine-tuning (SFT) and reinforcement learning with human feedback (RLHF) to align to human preferences for helpfulness and safety. Llama 2 was pre-trained on 2 trillion tokens of data from publicly available sources. The tuned models are intended for assistant-like chat, whereas pre-trained models can be adapted for a variety of natural language generation tasks. Regardless of which version of the model a developer uses, the responsible use guide from Meta can assist in guiding additional fine-tuning that may be necessary to customize and optimize the models with appropriate safety mitigations.

Currently, Llama 2 is available in the following regions:

• Deploy pre-trained model available: "us-west-2", "us-east-1", "us-east-2", "eu-west-1", "ap-southeast-1", "ap-southeast-2"
• Fine-tune and deploy the fine-tuned model: “us-east-1”, “us-west-2”,“eu-west-1”

What is SageMaker JumpStart

With SageMaker JumpStart, ML practitioners can choose from a broad selection of publicly available foundation models. ML practitioners can deploy foundation models to dedicated Amazon SageMaker instances from a network isolated environment and customize models using SageMaker for model training and deployment. You can now discover and deploy Llama 2 with a few clicks in SageMaker Studio or programmatically through the SageMaker Python SDK, enabling you to derive model performance and MLOps controls with SageMaker features such as Amazon SageMaker Pipelines, Amazon SageMaker Debugger, or container logs. The model is deployed in an AWS secure environment and under your VPC controls, helping ensure data security. In addition, you can fine-tune Llama2 7B, 13B, and 70B pre-trained text generation models via SageMaker JumpStart.

Fine-tune Llama2 models

You can fine-tune the models using either the SageMaker Studio UI or SageMaker Python SDK. We discuss both methods in this section.

No-code fine-tuning via the SageMaker Studio UI

In SageMaker Studio, you can access Llama 2 models via SageMaker JumpStart under Models, notebooks, and solutions, as shown in the following screenshot.

If you don’t see Llama 2 models, update your SageMaker Studio version by shutting down and restarting. For more information about version updates, refer to Shut down and Update Studio Apps.

You can also find other four model variants by choosing Explore all Text Generation Models or searching for llama in the search box.

On this page, you can point to the Amazon Simple Storage Service (Amazon S3) bucket containing the training and validation datasets for fine-tuning. In addition, you can configure deployment configuration, hyperparameters, and security settings for fine-tuning. You can then choose Train to start the training job on a SageMaker ML instance. The preceding screenshot shows the fine-tuning page for the Llama-2 7B model; however, you can fine-tune the 13B and 70B Llama 2 text generation models using their respective model pages similarly. To use Llama 2 models, you need to accept the End User License Agreement (EULA). It will show up when you when you choose Train, as shown in the following screenshot. Choose I have read and accept EULA and AUP to start the fine-tuning job.

Deploy the model

After the model is fine-tuned, you can deploy it using the model page on SageMaker JumpStart. The option to deploy the fine-tuned model will appear when fine-tuning is finished, as shown in the following screenshot.

Fine-tune via the SageMaker Python SDK

You can also fine-tune Llama 2 models using the SageMaker Python SDK. The following is a sample code to fine-tune the Llama 2 7B on your dataset:

import os
import boto3
from sagemaker.session import Session
from sagemaker.jumpstart.estimator import JumpStartEstimator # To fine-tune the 13B/70B model, please change model_id to `meta-textgeneration-llama-2-13b`/`meta-textgeneration-llama-2-70b`.
model_id = "meta-textgeneration-llama-2-7b" estimator = JumpStartEstimator( model_id=model_id, environment={"accept_eula": "true"}
)
# By default, instruction tuning is set to false. Thus, to use instruction tuning dataset you use
estimator.set_hyperparameters(instruction_tuned="True", epoch="5")
estimator.fit({"training": train_data_location})

You can deploy the fine-tuned model directly from the estimator:

finetuned_predictor = estimator.deploy()

You can also find the code in Fine-tune LLaMA 2 models on SageMaker JumpStart. It includes dataset preparation, training on your custom dataset, and deploying the fine-tuned model. It demonstrates fine-tuning on a subset of the Dolly dataset with examples from the summarization task. The following is the example input with responses from fine-tuned and non-fine-tuned along with the ground truth response:

Input to the model:

Below is an instruction that describes a task, paired with an input that provides further context. Write a response that appropriately completes the request.nn### Instruction:nWhen did Felix Luna die?nn### Input:nFélix César Luna (30 September 1925 – 5 November 2009) was an Argentine writer, lyricist and historian.nnnn### Response:n

Ground Truth response:

Felix Luna died on November 5th, 2009

Response from the non fine-tuned model:

Félix César Luna (30 September 1925 – 5 November 2009) was an ArgentinennWhen did Luna die?nnn### Explanation:nWe answer the question with the input's date of birth and the date of death.nnn### Solution: 1102n

Response from the fine-tuned model:

Félix Luna died on November 5th, 2009.nn

For performance benchmarking of different models on the Dolly and Dialogsum dataset, refer to the Performance benchmarking section in the appendix at the end of this post.

Fine-tuning technique

Language models such as Llama are more than 10 GB or even 100 GB in size. Fine-tuning such large models requires instances with significantly high CUDA memory. Furthermore, training these models can be very slow due to the size of the model. Therefore, for efficient fine-tuning, we use the following optimizations:

• Low-Rank Adaptation (LoRA) – This is a type of parameter efficient fine-tuning (PEFT) for efficient fine-tuning of large models. In this, we freeze the whole model and only add a small set of adjustable parameters or layers into the model. For instance, instead of training all 7 billion parameters for Llama 2 7B, we can fine-tune less than 1% of the parameters. This helps in significant reduction of the memory requirement because we only need to store gradients, optimizer states, and other training-related information for only 1% of the parameters. Furthermore, this helps in reduction of training time as well as the cost. For more details on this method, refer to LoRA: Low-Rank Adaptation of Large Language Models.
• Int8 quantization – Even with optimizations such as LoRA, models such as Llama 70B are still too big to train. To decrease the memory footprint during training, we can use Int8 quantization during training. Quantization typically reduces the precision of the floating point data types. Although this decreases the memory required to store model weights, it degrades the performance due to loss of information. Int8 quantization uses only a quarter precision but doesn’t incur degradation of performance because it doesn’t simply drop the bits. It rounds the data from one type to the another. To learn about Int8 quantization, refer to LLM.int8(): 8-bit Matrix Multiplication for Transformers at Scale.
• Fully Sharded Data Parallel (FSDP) – This is a type of data-parallel training algorithm that shards the model’s parameters across data parallel workers and can optionally offload part of the training computation to the CPUs. Although the parameters are sharded across different GPUs, computation of each microbatch is local to the GPU worker. It shards parameters more uniformly and achieves optimized performance via communication and computation overlapping during training.

The following table compares different methods with the three Llama 2 models.

Note that fine-tuning of Llama models is based on scripts provided by the following GitHub repo.

Training dataset format

SageMaker JumpStart currently support datasets in both domain adaptation format and instruction tuning format. In this section, we specify an example dataset in both formats. For more details, refer to the Dataset formatting section in the appendix.

Domain adaptation format

The text generation Llama 2 model can be fine-tuned on any domain-specific dataset. After it’s fine-tuned on the domain-specific dataset, the model is expected to generate domain-specific text and solve various NLP tasks in that specific domain with few-shot prompting. With this dataset, input consists of a CSV, JSON, or TXT file. For instance, input data may be SEC filings of Amazon as a text file:

This report includes estimates, projections, statements relating to our
business plans, objectives, and expected operating results that are “forward-
looking statements” within the meaning of the Private Securities Litigation
Reform Act of 1995, Section 27A of the Securities Act of 1933, and Section 21E
of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934. Forward-looking statements may appear
throughout this report, including the following sections: “Business” (Part I,
Item 1 of this Form 10-K), “Risk Factors” (Part I, Item 1A of this Form 10-K),
and “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results
of Operations” (Part II, Item 7 of this Form 10-K). These forward-looking
statements generally are identified by the words “believe,” “project,”
“expect,” “anticipate,” “estimate,” “intend,” “strategy,” “future,”
“opportunity,” “plan,” “may,” “should,” “will,” “would,” “will be,” “will
continue,” “will likely result,” and similar expressions.

Instruction tuning format

In instruction fine-tuning, the model is fine-tuned for a set of natural language processing (NLP) tasks described using instructions. This helps improve the model’s performance for unseen tasks with zero-shot prompts. In instruction tuning dataset format, you specify the template.json file describing the input and the output formats. For instance, each line in the file train.jsonl looks like the following:

{"instruction": "What is a dispersive prism?", "context": "In optics, a dispersive prism is an optical prism that is used to disperse light, that is, to separate light into its spectral components (the colors of the rainbow). Different wavelengths (colors) of light will be deflected by the prism at different angles. This is a result of the prism material's index of refraction varying with wavelength (dispersion). Generally, longer wavelengths (red) undergo a smaller deviation than shorter wavelengths (blue). The dispersion of white light into colors by a prism led Sir Isaac Newton to conclude that white light consisted of a mixture of different colors.", "response": "A dispersive prism is an optical prism that disperses the light's different wavelengths at different angles. When white light is shined through a dispersive prism it will separate into the different colors of the rainbow."}

The additional file template.json looks like the following:

{ "prompt": "Below is an instruction that describes a task, paired with an input that provides further context. " "Write a response that appropriately completes the request.nn" "### Instruction:n{instruction}nn### Input:n{context}nn", "completion": " {response}",
}

Supported hyperparameters for training

Llama 2 fine-tuning supports a number of hyperparameters, each of which can impact the memory requirement, training speed, and performance of the fine-tuned model:

• epoch – The number of passes that the fine-tuning algorithm takes through the training dataset. Must be an integer greater than 1. Default is 5.
• learning_rate – The rate at which the model weights are updated after working through each batch of training examples. Must be a positive float greater than 0. Default is 1e-4.
• instruction_tuned – Whether to instruction-train the model or not. Must be ‘True‘ or ‘False‘. Default is ‘False‘.
• per_device_train_batch_size – The batch size per GPU core/CPU for training. Must be a positive integer. Default is 4.
• per_device_eval_batch_size – The batch size per GPU core/CPU for evaluation. Must be a positive integer. Default is 1.
• max_train_samples – For debugging purposes or quicker training, truncate the number of training examples to this value. Value -1 means using all of the training samples. Must be a positive integer or -1. Default is -1.
• max_val_samples – For debugging purposes or quicker training, truncate the number of validation examples to this value. Value -1 means using all of the validation samples. Must be a positive integer or -1. Default is -1.
• max_input_length – Maximum total input sequence length after tokenization. Sequences longer than this will be truncated. If -1, max_input_length is set to the minimum of 1024 and the maximum model length defined by the tokenizer. If set to a positive value, max_input_length is set to the minimum of the provided value and the model_max_length defined by the tokenizer. Must be a positive integer or -1. Default is -1.
• validation_split_ratio – If validation channel is none, ratio of train-validation split from the train data must be between 0–1. Default is 0.2.
• train_data_split_seed – If validation data is not present, this fixes the random splitting of the input training data to training and validation data used by the algorithm. Must be an integer. Default is 0.
• preprocessing_num_workers – The number of processes to use for preprocessing. If None, the main process is used for preprocessing. Default is None.
• lora_r – Lora R. Must be a positive integer. Default is 8.
• lora_alpha – Lora Alpha. Must be a positive integer. Default is 32
• lora_dropout – Lora Dropout. must be a positive float between 0 and 1. Default is 0.05.
• int8_quantization – If True, the model is loaded with 8-bit precision for training. Default for 7B and 13B is False. Default for 70B is True.
• enable_fsdp – If True, training uses FSDP. Default for 7B and 13B is True. Default for 70B is False. Note that int8_quantization is not supported with FSDP.

Instance types and compatible hyperparameters

The memory requirement during fine-tuning may vary based on several factors:

• Model type – The 7B model has the least GPU memory requirement and 70B has the largest memory requirement
• Max input length – A higher value of input length leads to processing more tokens at a time and as such requires more CUDA memory
• Batch size – A larger batch size requires larger CUDA memory and therefore requires larger instance types
• Int8 quantization – If using Int8 quantization, the model is loaded into low precision and therefore requires less CUDA memory

To help you get started, we provide a set of combinations of different instance types, hyperparameters, and model types that can be successfully fine-tuned. You can select a configuration as per your requirements and availability of instance types. We fine-tune all three models on a variety of settings with three epochs on a subset of the Dolly dataset with summarization examples.

7B model

The following table summarizes the fine-tuning options on the 7B model.

13B

The following table summarizes the fine-tuning options on the 13B model.

70B

The following table summarizes the fine-tuning options on the 70B model.

Recommendations on instance types and hyperparameters

When fine-tuning the model’s accuracy, keep in mind the following:

• Larger models such as 70B provide better performance than 7B
• Performance without Int8 quantization is better than performance with INT8 quantization

Note the following training time and CUDA memory requirements:

• Setting int8_quantization=True decreases the memory requirement and leads to faster training.
• Decreasing per_device_train_batch_size and max_input_length reduces the memory requirement and therefore can be run on smaller instances. However, setting very low values may increase the training time.
• If you’re not using Int8 quantization (int8_quantization=False), use FSDP (enable_fsdp=True) for faster and efficient training.

When choosing the instance type, consider the following:

• G5 instances provide the most efficient training among the instance types supported. Therefore, if you have G5 instances available, you should use them.
• Training time largely depends on the amount of the number of GPUs and the CUDA memory available. Therefore, training on instances with the same number of GPUs (for example, ml.g5.2xlarge and ml.g5.4xlarge) is roughly the same. Therefore, you can use the cheaper instance for training (ml.g5.2xlarge).
• When using p3 instances, training will be done with 32-bit precision because bfloat16 is not supported on these instances. Therefore, the training job will consume double the amount of CUDA memory when training on p3 instances compared to g5 instances.

To learn about the cost of training per instance, refer to Amazon EC2 G5 Instances.

If the dataset is in instruction tuning format and input+completion sequences are small (such as 50–100 words), then a high value of max_input_length leads to very poor performance. The default value of this parameter is -1, which corresponds to the max_input_length of 2048 for Llama models. Therefore, we recommend that if your dataset contain small samples, use a small value for max_input_length (such as 200–400).

Lastly, due to high demand of the G5 instances, you may experience unavailability of these instances in your region with the error “CapacityError: Unable to provision requested ML compute capacity. Please retry using a different ML instance type.” If you experience this error, retry the training job or try a different Region.

Issues when fine-tuning very large models

In this section, we discuss two issues when fine-tuning very large models.

Disable output compression

By default, the output of a training job is a trained model that is compressed in a .tar.gz format before it’s uploaded to Amazon S3. However, due to the large size of the model, this step can take a long time. For example, compressing and uploading the 70B model can take more than 4 hours. To avoid this issue, you can use the disable output compression feature supported by the SageMaker training platform. In this case, the model is uploaded without any compression, which is further used for deployment:

estimator = JumpStartEstimator(
model_id=model_id, environment={"accept_eula": "true"}, disable_output_compression=True
)

SageMaker Studio kernel timeout issue

Due to the size of the Llama 70B model, the training job may take several hours and the SageMaker Studio kernel may die during the training phase. However, during this time, training is still running in SageMaker. If this happens, you can still deploy the endpoint using the training job name with the following code:

from sagemaker.jumpstart.estimator import JumpStartEstimator
training_job_name = <<<INSERT_TRAINING_JOB_NAME>>> attached_estimator = JumpStartEstimator.attach(training_job_name, model_id)
attached_estimator.logs()
attached_estimator.deploy()

To find the training job name, navigate to the SageMaker console and under Training in the navigation pane, choose Training jobs. Identify the training job name and substitute it in the preceding code.

Conclusion

In this post, we discussed fine-tuning Meta’s Llama 2 models using SageMaker JumpStart. We showed that you can use the SageMaker JumpStart console in SageMaker Studio or the SageMaker Python SDK to fine-tune and deploy these models. We also discussed the fine-tuning technique, instance types, and supported hyperparameters. In addition, we outlined recommendations for optimized training based on various tests we carried out. The results for fine-tuning the three models over two datasets are shown in the appendix at the end of this post. As we can see from these results, fine-tuning improves summarization compared to non-fine-tuned models. As a next step, you can try fine-tuning these models on your own dataset using the code provided in the GitHub repository to test and benchmark the results for your use cases.

The authors would like to acknowledge the technical contributions of Christopher Whitten, Xin Huang, Kyle Ulrich, Sifei Li, Amy You, Adam Kozdrowicz, Evan Kravitz , Benjamin Crabtree, Haotian An, Manan Shah, Tony Cruz, Ernev Sharma, Jonathan Guinegagne and June Won.

About the Authors

Dr. Vivek Madan is an Applied Scientist with the Amazon SageMaker JumpStart team. He got his PhD from University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and was a Post Doctoral Researcher at Georgia Tech. He is an active researcher in machine learning and algorithm design and has published papers in EMNLP, ICLR, COLT, FOCS, and SODA conferences.

Dr. Farooq Sabir is a Senior Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning Specialist Solutions Architect at AWS. He holds PhD and MS degrees in Electrical Engineering from the University of Texas at Austin and an MS in Computer Science from Georgia Institute of Technology. He has over 15 years of work experience and also likes to teach and mentor college students. At AWS, he helps customers formulate and solve their business problems in data science, machine learning, computer vision, artificial intelligence, numerical optimization, and related domains. Based in Dallas, Texas, he and his family love to travel and go on long road trips.

Dr. Ashish Khetan is a Senior Applied Scientist with Amazon SageMaker JumpStart and helps develop machine learning algorithms. He got his PhD from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. He is an active researcher in machine learning and statistical inference, and has published many papers in NeurIPS, ICML, ICLR, JMLR, ACL, and EMNLP conferences.

Appendix

This appendix provides additional information about performance benchmarking and dataset formatting.

Performance benchmarking

In this section, we provide results for fine-tuning the three Llama 2 models (7B, 13B, and 70B) on two different datasets: Dolly and Dialogsum. For the Dolly dataset, our task is to summarize a paragraph of text, whereas for Dialogsum, we are fine-tuning the model to summarize a discussion between two people. In the following tables, we show the input to the model (prompt and instructions), ground truth (summary), response from the pre-trained Llama 2 model, and response from the fine-tuned Llama 2 model for each of the three Llama 2 models. We show inference results for five data points. You can notice from the following tables that the summaries improve for both the datasets when we fine-tune the models.

• Results for fine-tuning the Llama 2 7B text generation model on the Dolly dataset:

• Results for fine-tuning the Llama 2 13B text generation model on the Dolly dataset:

• Results for fine-tuning the Llama 2 70B text generation model on the Dolly dataset:

• Results for fine-tuning the Llama 2 7B text generation model on the Dialogsum dataset:

• Results for fine-tuning the Llama-2 13B model on the Dialogsum dataset:

• Results for fine-tuning the Llama 2 70B model on the Dialogsum dataset:

Dataset formatting

We currently offer two types of fine-tuning: instruction fine-tuning and domain adaption fine-tuning. You can easily switch to one of the training methods by specifying the parameter instruction_tuned as ‘True‘ or ‘False‘.

Domain adaption format

The text generation model can also be fine-tuned on any domain-specific dataset. After it’s fine-tuned on the domain-specific dataset, the model is expected to generate domain-specific text and solve various NLP tasks in that specific domain with few-shot prompting.

For input to the model, use a training and optional validation directory. Each directory contains a CSV, JSON, or TXT file. For CSV and JSON files, the train or validation data is used from the column called text or the first column if no column called text is found. The number of files under train and validation (if provided) should equal to 1, respectively.

The output is a trained model that can be deployed for inference.

The following is an example of a TXT file for fine-tuning the text generation model. The TXT file is SEC filings of Amazon from 2021–2022:

This report includes estimates, projections, statements relating to our
business plans, objectives, and expected operating results that are “forward-
looking statements” within the meaning of the Private Securities Litigation
Reform Act of 1995, Section 27A of the Securities Act of 1933, and Section 21E
of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934. Forward-looking statements may appear
throughout this report, including the following sections: “Business” (Part I,
Item 1 of this Form 10-K), “Risk Factors” (Part I, Item 1A of this Form 10-K),
and “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results
of Operations” (Part II, Item 7 of this Form 10-K). These forward-looking
statements generally are identified by the words “believe,” “project,”
“expect,” “anticipate,” “estimate,” “intend,” “strategy,” “future,”
“opportunity,” “plan,” “may,” “should,” “will,” “would,” “will be,” “will
continue,” “will likely result,” and similar expressions. Forward-looking
statements are based on current expectations and assumptions that are subject
to risks and uncertainties that may cause actual results to differ materially.
We describe risks and uncertainties that could cause actual results and events
to differ materially in “Risk Factors,” “Management’s Discussion and Analysis
of Financial Condition and Results of Operations,” and “Quantitative and
Qualitative Disclosures about Market Risk” (Part II, Item 7A of this Form
10-K). Readers are cautioned not to place undue reliance on forward-looking
statements, which speak only as of the date they are made. We undertake no
obligation to update or revise publicly any forward-looking statements,
whether because of new information, future events, or otherwise. GENERAL Embracing Our Future ...

Instruction fine-tuning

The text generation model can be instruction-tuned on any text data provided that the data is in the expected format. The instruction-tuned model can be further deployed for inference.

For input, use a training and optional validation directory. The train and validation directories should contain one or multiple JSON lines (.jsonl) formatted files. In particular, the train directory can also contain an optional *.json file describing the input and output formats.

The best model is selected according to the validation loss, calculated at the end of each epoch. If a validation set is not given, an (adjustable) percentage of the training data is automatically split and used for validation.

The training data must be formatted in a JSON lines (.jsonl) format, where each line is a dictionary representing a single data sample. All training data must be in a single folder; however, it can be saved in multiple .jsonl files. The .jsonl file extension is mandatory. The training folder can also contain a template.json file describing the input and output formats. If no template file is given, the following template will be used:

{ "prompt": "Below is an instruction that describes a task, paired with an input that provides further context. Write a response that appropriately completes the request.nn### Instruction:n{instruction}nn### Input:n{context}`, "completion": "{response}",
}

In this case, the data in the JSON lines entries must include prompt and completion fields. If a custom template is provided, it must also use prompt and completion keys to define the input and output templates. The following is a sample custom template:

{ "prompt": "question: {question} context: {context}", "completion": "{answer}"
}

Here, the data in the JSON lines entries must include the question, context, and answer fields.

The output is a trained model that can be deployed for inference.

We provide a subset of SEC filings data of Amazon. It is downloaded from publicly available EDGAR. For instructions on accessing the data, refer to Accessing EDGAR Data.

License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License (CC BY-SA 4.0)

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• Source: https://aws.amazon.com/blogs/machine-learning/fine-tune-llama-2-for-text-generation-on-amazon-sagemaker-jumpstart/